Ignificant and small effect sizes for gender-differentiated parental control imply that there is considerable similarity in parents’ control of boys and girls. As parental control plays an important role in children’s development of autonomous or controlled regulation of behavior [13], [14], parents appear to use similar levels of autonomy-supportive parenting and controlling parenting with boys and girls to support optimal development in both sons and daughters. These findings argue against the propositions of biosocial theory that parents use gender-differentiated parenting as a means of gender-role socialization. Apparently, mothers and fathers do not use different control strategies with boys and with girls to prepare them for their future gender roles in society. It is possible that parents do not regard child outcomes associated with parental control (e.g., self-regulation) as relevant to masculinity or femininity, and therefore do not socialize boys and girls differently with regard to control [203]. Parents might use more specific and subtle gender socialization practices to influence their children’s gender-role behavior. There is evidence that gender differentiation and discrimination has become less blatant and increasingly subtle in many contemporary societies [204]. In P144 Peptide web addition, larger and more consistent differences in the treatment of boys and girls are found with regard to parents’ encouragement of gender-typical activities [8], parental gender talk [205], andPLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0159193 July 14,20 /Gender-Differentiated Parental Controlparents’ toy, clothing, and chore choices for children [206]. Moreover, two large longitudinal studies focusing on gender-specific emotion socialization [95] and physical discipline in response to boys’ and girls’ noncompliance [207] have found that fathers differential socialization of boys and girls was related to larger gender differences in child behavior a year later [95]. In the current meta-analysis we did not find evidence for parents using the specific strategies harsh physical control and psychological control differently with boys and girls, which might be due to a lack of power. Our findings are not necessarily discordant with the argument of gender schema theories [4] that parents’ gender-differentiated use of controlling and autonomy supportive strategies is likely to be influenced by parents’ gender-role stereotypes. In the current meta-analysis we were unable to examine whether parents’ gender stereotypes influenced gender-differentiated parenting practices, as hardly any studies provided pertinent data. Parents with traditional Anlotinib structure attitudes about gender roles might have been more likely to show genderdifferentiated parenting that reinforces gender-role consistent behavior (e.g., more harsh or physical control of boys than girls, more gentle control and guidance of girls than of boys) than other parents. Some significant moderators of parents’ gender-differentiated use of control were found, but the effect sizes were very small. First, the effect size for controlling strategies was largest in studies with children between 0 and 2-years-old, a time in which gender differences in disruptive behavior or difficult temperament are generally less pronounced [59], [208], [209]. This finding argues against parents’ gender-differentiated use of controlling strategies being elicited by pre-existing gender differences in behavior (i.e., child-elicited effect). Second, the.Ignificant and small effect sizes for gender-differentiated parental control imply that there is considerable similarity in parents’ control of boys and girls. As parental control plays an important role in children’s development of autonomous or controlled regulation of behavior [13], [14], parents appear to use similar levels of autonomy-supportive parenting and controlling parenting with boys and girls to support optimal development in both sons and daughters. These findings argue against the propositions of biosocial theory that parents use gender-differentiated parenting as a means of gender-role socialization. Apparently, mothers and fathers do not use different control strategies with boys and with girls to prepare them for their future gender roles in society. It is possible that parents do not regard child outcomes associated with parental control (e.g., self-regulation) as relevant to masculinity or femininity, and therefore do not socialize boys and girls differently with regard to control [203]. Parents might use more specific and subtle gender socialization practices to influence their children’s gender-role behavior. There is evidence that gender differentiation and discrimination has become less blatant and increasingly subtle in many contemporary societies [204]. In addition, larger and more consistent differences in the treatment of boys and girls are found with regard to parents’ encouragement of gender-typical activities [8], parental gender talk [205], andPLOS ONE | DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0159193 July 14,20 /Gender-Differentiated Parental Controlparents’ toy, clothing, and chore choices for children [206]. Moreover, two large longitudinal studies focusing on gender-specific emotion socialization [95] and physical discipline in response to boys’ and girls’ noncompliance [207] have found that fathers differential socialization of boys and girls was related to larger gender differences in child behavior a year later [95]. In the current meta-analysis we did not find evidence for parents using the specific strategies harsh physical control and psychological control differently with boys and girls, which might be due to a lack of power. Our findings are not necessarily discordant with the argument of gender schema theories [4] that parents’ gender-differentiated use of controlling and autonomy supportive strategies is likely to be influenced by parents’ gender-role stereotypes. In the current meta-analysis we were unable to examine whether parents’ gender stereotypes influenced gender-differentiated parenting practices, as hardly any studies provided pertinent data. Parents with traditional attitudes about gender roles might have been more likely to show genderdifferentiated parenting that reinforces gender-role consistent behavior (e.g., more harsh or physical control of boys than girls, more gentle control and guidance of girls than of boys) than other parents. Some significant moderators of parents’ gender-differentiated use of control were found, but the effect sizes were very small. First, the effect size for controlling strategies was largest in studies with children between 0 and 2-years-old, a time in which gender differences in disruptive behavior or difficult temperament are generally less pronounced [59], [208], [209]. This finding argues against parents’ gender-differentiated use of controlling strategies being elicited by pre-existing gender differences in behavior (i.e., child-elicited effect). Second, the.